The Retreat from Direct Rule

At the end of the Second World War, Britain governed an empire that covered almost one-quarter of the Earth’s land surface. It held legal control over more than 600 million people in territories across Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, the Middle East, and the Pacific (Declassified UK, 2024: https://www.declassifieduk.org/the-empire-never-died/).

This phase of empire was structured through direct colonial administration. British governors, soldiers, and civil servants held political and military authority. Most decisions were made from London. Local populations had no formal power.

The process of ending this system began in 1947, when India and Pakistan became independent. Between 1947 and 1980, more than 80 British colonies were dissolved or handed over to new governments. Ghana left in 1957. Nigeria followed in 1960. Jamaica, Uganda, Kenya, and others followed in the 1960s and 70s.

The final major colony, Zimbabwe, gained independence in 1980 (Declassified UK, 2024: https://www.declassifieduk.org/the-empire-never-died/).

The Territories That Remained

After 1980, Britain kept control of a group of small territories. Fourteen jurisdictions remain under full British sovereignty. These are known in UK law as the British Overseas Territories (UK Government, 2025: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/68664c5ae4184a43f9785bf0/UK_Overseas_Territories_toponymic_information.pdf).

They include:

Gibraltar
Bermuda
Cayman Islands
Falkland Islands
British Virgin Islands
Turks and Caicos Islands
Montserrat
Anguilla
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
British Indian Ocean Territory
British Antarctic Territory
Pitcairn Islands
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
Sovereign Base Areas in Cyprus

Four of these have no permanent population. Most of the rest are used for military access, resource extraction, or tax jurisdiction purposes.

Each territory has its own local government. But ultimate power rests with the British Crown. Governors are appointed by London. The UK controls defence, foreign policy, and internal governance in any area it deems a matter of “good governance” (UK Government, 2025: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/68664c5ae4184a43f9785bf0/UK_Overseas_Territories_toponymic_information.pdf).

International Status: Still a Colonial Power

The United Nations still classifies many of these territories as colonies. As of 2024, the UN lists 17 “Non-Self-Governing Territories” — territories that have not completed the process of decolonisation (UN, 2024: https://www.un.org/dppa/decolonization/en/nsgt).

The UK is the administering power for 10 of them. This is more than any other country. The list includes:

Anguilla
Bermuda
British Virgin Islands
Cayman Islands
Falkland Islands
Gibraltar
Montserrat
Pitcairn
Saint Helena
Turks and Caicos

In 2025, Britain remains the country with the largest number of colonial territories by UN definition.

The UK government has consistently refused to allow these territories to enter independence negotiations unless they first request it themselves. In several cases, international rulings have found the UK in violation of decolonisation law. In the case of the Chagos Islands, the International Court of Justice ruled in 2019 that the UK’s continued occupation violates the territorial integrity of Mauritius. The UK rejected the ruling (UN General Assembly, 2019: https://www.un.org/press/en/2019/ga12146.doc.htm).

What This Means

While the empire no longer holds India or Nigeria, it retains a network of smaller sites. These places form part of Britain’s modern strategic system. Some act as military outposts. Some act as financial havens. Some provide surveillance coverage.

The Empire of Bases

A Military Infrastructure Beyond the British Isles

After 1980, Britain no longer ruled over large populations abroad. But it continued to station military personnel, weapons systems, and surveillance infrastructure across the world. This network did not emerge by accident. It followed the pathways of the old empire.

Many bases are located on land that was held during formal colonial rule. Others were carved out during the handover period, using legal and diplomatic leverage before independence. Several of the remaining British Overseas Territories serve no civilian purpose. They exist to host military installations or intelligence operations.

In 2020, independent research identified 145 British military sites in 42 countries. This included 60 directly managed by the UK Ministry of Defence and 85 run by allied states but used by British forces (Miller, 2020: https://www.declassifieduk.org/revealed-the-uk-militarys-overseas-base-network-involves-145-sites-in-42-countries/).

This structure continues to operate today. It remains largely unknown to the British public.

Key Sites and Sovereign Zones

Cyprus: RAF Akrotiri and Dhekelia

When Cyprus gained independence in 1960, the British government retained control of 3% of the island. These areas were designated as Sovereign Base Areas. They remain under full UK sovereignty in 2025 (UK Defence Journal, 2024: https://ukdefencejournal.org.uk/uk-military-presence-across-overseas-territories-detailed/).

RAF Akrotiri is used for air operations across the Middle East. It hosts surveillance aircraft and drone flights. It is also home to GCHQ listening stations. The UK uses this base to support operations in Syria, Iraq, and the Red Sea.

British forces in Cyprus operate under full legal immunity from Cypriot jurisdiction. The British government has stated that the bases are of “strategic national interest” and will not be given up.

Diego Garcia: British Indian Ocean Territory

The UK created the British Indian Ocean Territory in 1965 by detaching it from colonial Mauritius. The population — around 2,000 Chagossians — was forcibly removed between 1968 and 1973. The UK then leased the largest island, Diego Garcia, to the United States for use as a military base (Declassified UK, 2024: https://www.declassifieduk.org/the-empire-never-died/).

The base hosts long-range bombers, naval vessels, and intelligence operations. It has been used to launch missions in Iraq and Afghanistan and to hold detainees during the US rendition programme. The International Court of Justice ruled in 2019 that the UK’s continued occupation of the territory is illegal. The UK has refused to comply (UN General Assembly, 2019: https://www.un.org/press/en/2019/ga12146.doc.htm).

Falkland Islands

The UK has maintained a large military garrison on the Falkland Islands since the 1982 war with Argentina. The force includes air defence systems, radar, and fast jet aircraft. The islands remain a high-cost overseas post, maintained primarily for geopolitical assertion and oil exploration.

Training Grounds in Former Colonies

Several former British colonies host training missions or logistics facilities for UK forces.

Kenya: The British Army Training Unit Kenya operates in Laikipia County. This area is used for large-scale infantry and live-fire training. Kenyan civil society groups have challenged the presence of British troops due to cases of environmental damage and alleged abuse (Declassified UK, 2021: https://www.declassifieduk.org/kenya-wants-answers-over-british-army-murder-cover-up/).
Belize: British forces continue to use Price Barracks in Belize for jungle training. The UK pays no rent for use of the land. Belize remains a member of the Commonwealth, with close military ties to Britain.
Brunei: Around 2,000 British troops are based in three garrisons. This arrangement dates back to colonial treaties. British officers assist the Brunei military under long-term agreements.
Canada: British forces use the British Army Training Unit Suffield in Alberta to conduct armoured manoeuvre training.

Permanent Deployments and Numbers

As of 2024, the UK maintains an estimated 3,391 military personnel stationed permanently across its overseas territories (UK Defence Journal, 2024: https://ukdefencejournal.org.uk/uk-military-presence-across-overseas-territories-detailed/).

This includes:

2,360 in the Sovereign Base Areas of Cyprus
820 in the Falkland Islands
100 in Gibraltar
111 across other sites

Additional UK forces rotate through allied facilities in Qatar, Oman, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, and Jordan. These countries hold historical defence partnerships dating back to the colonial period.

Strategic Function of the Base Network

The UK uses this global network to carry out military operations far beyond Europe. British warplanes launched from Cyprus have taken part in bombing campaigns in Syria. Royal Navy ships patrol the Gulf of Aden and the South China Sea. British troops train allied forces across Africa and the Middle East.

The existence of this network allows the UK to participate in US-led missions without staging operations from the UK itself. It also ensures continued influence over sea routes, airspace corridors, and geopolitical chokepoints.

This structure mirrors the imperial pattern of strategic outposts.

Intelligence, Surveillance, and Proxy Strategy

Global Surveillance After Empire

Following the decline of direct rule, Britain embedded itself in a new system of global intelligence cooperation. The centrepiece of this is the Five Eyes alliance.

The Five Eyes system was formalised through the 1946 UKUSA Agreement. It brought together the signals intelligence services of the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand (Wikipedia, 2024: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UKUSA_Agreement).

Each state collects data within and beyond its borders. The system allows for pooled intelligence, joint surveillance programmes, and coordinated cyber operations. It forms a global surveillance infrastructure that bypasses many national legal restrictions.

According to former NSA contractor Edward Snowden, Five Eyes functions as “a supra-national intelligence organisation that does not answer to the known laws of its own countries” (Privacy International, 2019: http://privacyinternational.org/learn/five-eyes).

Five Eyes operates in parallel with military deployments. UK bases in Cyprus and Diego Garcia host intelligence gathering facilities used by GCHQ and its US partners. The architecture of empire has shifted from governing populations to monitoring them.

Covert Operations and Diplomatic Intervention

The UK’s intelligence role is not limited to data collection. It includes covert military assistance, narrative control, and diplomatic intervention in conflict zones.

Ukraine: The UK’s Lead Role Before and After 2022

From 2015 to 2022, the UK ran Operation Orbital, a military training mission in Ukraine. This programme trained over 22,000 Ukrainian troops before the Russian invasion (UK Government, 2023: https://www.gov.uk/government/news/30000-ukrainian-recruits-trained-in-largest-uk-military-training-effort-since-second-world-war).

After the invasion, Operation Interflex was launched to continue training on UK soil. As of late 2024, more than 52,000 Ukrainian troops had completed the programme (UK Government, 2024: https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-trains-52000-ukrainian-recruits-on-british-soil).

In November 2024, the head of MI6, Richard Moore, confirmed publicly that British intelligence is conducting covert operations in support of Ukraine. He stated that intelligence work is “critical to calibrating risk and informing the decisions of our respective governments” (Sky News, 2024: https://news.sky.com/story/head-of-mi6-says-ive-never-seen-the-world-in-a-more-dangerous-state-as-he-warns-russia-would-not-stop-if-it-wins-in-ukraine-13263010).

Blocking Peace Negotiations in 2022

In April 2022, peace talks between Ukraine and Russia appeared close to agreement. Ukrainian negotiator Oleksandr Chalyi later confirmed that both sides had found a compromise on Ukrainian neutrality. He described the process as “very real” and nearly complete (New York Times, 2024: https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/10/world/europe/ukraine-peace-talks.html).

On 9 April 2022, UK Prime Minister Boris Johnson made an unannounced visit to Kyiv. Three days later, Vladimir Putin declared the negotiations had reached a “dead end.” In late 2023, David Arakhamia, head of the Ukrainian delegation, stated publicly that Johnson had urged Ukraine not to sign any agreement. His message was direct: “Let’s just fight” (Declassified UK, 2024: https://www.declassifieduk.org/lets-just-fight-how-britain-prefers-war-over-peace-in-ukraine/).

Ukrainian media reported that Johnson delivered two messages. First, that “Putin is a war criminal” and should not be negotiated with. Second, that even if Ukraine wanted to reach a deal, NATO powers were not willing to support one (Wikipedia, 2022: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_negotiations_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine).

Independent researchers who examined the Istanbul negotiations concluded that both sides were open to compromise. Their report noted that “mutual willingness” had existed between Zelenskyy and Putin, but that pressure from Western powers, particularly the UK and US, derailed the process (Foreign Affairs, 2024: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/ukraine/russia-ukraine-peace-talks).

Intelligence as Foreign Policy

Britain’s intelligence agencies operate beyond national borders. Their work supports military operations, manages diplomatic risks, and controls information flows.

The Five Eyes network facilitates this work by integrating British intelligence into US-led operations. The UK’s base structure provides the physical infrastructure. Its agencies provide legal and institutional cover.

Through these channels, the British state maintains influence over foreign conflicts without direct rule or large troop deployments. Intelligence has replaced the colonial official. Surveillance has replaced the colonial census. Strategic pressure has replaced formal annexation.

The Financial Empire: Offshore Infrastructure and Global Control

Continuity Through Finance

As formal empire declined, Britain built a new structure of control through finance. The City of London became the centre of a global network that moved capital, managed offshore wealth, and provided legal and regulatory space for multinational corporations.

This transformation was not improvised. It was constructed through policy decisions, legal engineering, and institutional continuity.

Researchers at the Tax Justice Network describe this system as Britain’s “second empire” — based not on direct rule, but on the ability to extract, manage, and hide wealth on a global scale (TJN, 2019: https://taxjustice.net/2019/09/29/tax-havens-britains-second-empire/).

The City of London Corporation

At the centre of this system is the City of London Corporation. This is the governing body of London’s financial district, known as the Square Mile. It is a legally distinct entity, separate from the Greater London Authority. It has existed in its current form since the 13th century.

The City of London Corporation:

Operates with legal autonomy from Parliament (Investopedia, 2024: https://www.investopedia.com/the-city-of-london-corporation-7547068)
Maintains its own police force and courts
Allows corporate votes in local elections
Holds and manages over £2.1 billion in assets via a private fund known as “City’s Cash”
Acts as a formal representative of British finance globally

The Lord Mayor of London (a separate post from the Mayor of London) is selected annually by business livery companies and represents financial interests in international diplomacy.

The Corporation functions as a state within a state. Its policies and lobbying networks have shaped British tax law, company law, and financial regulation since the post-war period.

The British Offshore Network

Britain did not dismantle its overseas network. It converted it. After 1960, many of the remaining territories became nodes in a global financial infrastructure. This includes:

Crown Dependencies: Jersey, Guernsey, Isle of Man
Overseas Territories: Cayman Islands, British Virgin Islands, Bermuda, Gibraltar

These jurisdictions operate under British protection but lie outside full UK legal transparency. They provide banking secrecy, tax avoidance services, and corporate anonymity.

Together, they manage an estimated $11 trillion in offshore wealth (Tax Justice Network, 2021: https://fsi.taxjustice.net).

The UK government retains authority over foreign affairs and defence in these territories. Governors are appointed by the Crown. Local laws allow for company formation, asset shielding, and trust services with minimal disclosure.

Britain remains legally responsible for these territories at the United Nations.

Global Tax Loss and Corporate Secrecy

The 2024 Corporate Tax Haven Index ranks jurisdictions by the scale of corporate tax abuse they enable. The top three are all British-linked:

British Virgin Islands — Score: 100
Cayman Islands — Score: 100
Bermuda — Score: 100

(TJN, 2024: https://cthi.taxjustice.net)

According to the Tax Justice Network, the UK and its territories are responsible for one-third of all global corporate tax abuse. This results in $84 billion in annual tax losses to other countries (TJN, 2024: https://taxjustice.net/press/tax-haven-ranking-uk-protects-itself-while-keeping-world-defenceless-to-british-tax-havens/).

Much of this loss falls on developing countries, where revenue is diverted through shell companies or offshore entities registered in British jurisdictions.

Resource Extraction and the London Stock Exchange

The City of London hosts the London Stock Exchange (LSE), which acts as the listing hub for extractive industries. Many companies listed here control resource projects in Africa, Asia, and Latin America — often in former British colonies.

A 2025 study of the LSE found that:

101 companies listed on the exchange control over $1 trillion worth of Africa’s natural resources
These companies operate in 37 African countries
At least 25% are registered in British overseas tax havens (Declassified UK, 2025: https://www.declassifieduk.org/the-empire-never-died/)

These include mining, oil, gas, and infrastructure firms with historical roots in imperial ventures. Shareholders are based in the UK and other financial centres. Local populations bear the environmental and social costs, while profits are repatriated offshore.

Policy Continuity and State Support

The British government continues to support and protect this financial structure. The “revolving door” between state institutions and major financial firms remains open. Regulatory bodies, advisory committees, and government panels regularly include senior figures from HSBC, Barclays, BlackRock, PwC, and other institutions.

Senior intelligence and military officials also move into financial and extractive firms after public service. For example, Sir John Sawers, former head of MI6, joined the board of BP in 2015 (Declassified UK, 2024: https://www.declassifieduk.org/the-empire-never-died/).

This convergence of state and financial power mirrors the structure of older colonial arrangements, such as the British East India Company, which operated as both commercial and political agent.

Structural Outcome: Drain from the Global South

Economist Jason Hickel has documented the scale of financial extraction from the developing world. Between 1960 and 2018, an estimated $62 trillion in value was transferred from the Global South to the Global North through unequal exchange, underpriced exports, and offshore finance (Hickel, 2022: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S095937802200005X).

Britain’s offshore network and City finance system remain central to this process.

Deep State Continuity: Rotating Politicians, Permanent Establishment

Structural Legacy of Empire

British imperialism required a permanent class of administrators. These were not elected. They were drawn from elite education networks, trained in central departments, and circulated across postings in the colonies and in Whitehall.

After formal decolonisation, these networks did not dissolve. They shifted inwards. The civil service, intelligence agencies, judiciary, and diplomatic corps retained the structure and personnel systems developed under empire.

Many senior colonial officials became senior officials in the post-imperial state. Former colonial legal codes shaped British law. Media and intelligence structures adapted to manage domestic consent and foreign policy under the new system.

Permanent Institutions of Power

The following institutions operate continuously across changes in elected government. They hold legal, bureaucratic, and financial control over critical state functions.

1. The Crown and Privy Council

The monarch remains the formal head of state. All civil servants, judges, and armed forces swear allegiance to the Crown, not to Parliament.

The Privy Council, an advisory body to the monarch, includes sitting MPs but operates outside Parliament. It retains secret decision-making powers, especially in relation to royal prerogative powers and national security.

As of July 2025, the Privy Council has 742 members.

Membership is lifelong, and includes:

Elected officials: current and former ministers, opposition leaders, key parliamentary figures
Devolved government leaders: First Ministers of Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland
Senior judges: including Justices of the Supreme Court, Court of Appeal, and senior Scottish judges
Clergy: the Archbishop of Canterbury, Archbishop of York, and Bishop of London
Royal figures: typically the heir apparent, the sovereign’s consort, and key household members
Civil servants: selected senior officials, living out their posts beyond politics
Rare appointments: a small number of Commonwealth figures

Recent Appointments (2024)

Recent additions to the Privy Council include:

Michael Tomlinson
Lord Armstrong
Lord Beckett
Stephen Flynn
Vaughan Gething
Gavin Robinson
Owen Thompson
Lord Peter Fraser
Lucy Powell
Shabana Mahmood
Liz Kendall
Lisa Nandy
Louise Haigh
Darren Jones
Bridget Phillipson
Steve Reed
Jonathan Reynolds
Wes Streeting
Dr Anneliese Dodds
Richard Hermer
Dr Peter Kyle
Ian Murray
Jo Stevens
John Swinney
Baroness Morgan of Ely
Dame Janice Pereira
Sir Jeremy Baker
Sir David Holgate
Lord Clark
Sir Antony Zacaroli
Heidi Alexander

Full list here privycouncil.independent.gov.uk

2. Cabinet Office and Senior Civil Service

The Cabinet Office manages the civil service and coordinates policy across departments. Senior officials remain in post across governments. They brief new ministers and control departmental knowledge.

This continuity ensures that core policy frameworks are not disrupted by elections.

3. The City of London Corporation

The City of London Corporation operates as an autonomous governing body within central London. It is not subject to standard local government law. It holds its own police force, electoral system, and lobbying power.

It represents the financial services industry in all matters of national economic policy (Investopedia, 2024: https://www.investopedia.com/the-city-of-london-corporation-7547068).

4. House of Lords

The House of Lords remains unelected. It includes hereditary peers, bishops, and appointed figures from politics, law, and business. Lords hold lifetime seats and review or delay legislation passed by the elected Commons.

5. Intelligence Services (MI5, MI6, GCHQ)

The UK’s intelligence agencies operate with limited public oversight. Parliamentary committees review their work in closed sessions. Their budgets and operations are not subject to regular audit.

These agencies conduct surveillance, manage national security strategy, and coordinate with Five Eyes partners.

6. Legal-Media Networks

Elite law firms, private barristers’ chambers, and press baron families retain disproportionate influence. They shape legal norms, manage reputation risk, and define the limits of public discourse.

Ownership of national media remains concentrated among a small number of families and holding groups.

Policy Continuity Across Governments

Elected governments change, but the same institutions write briefing documents, staff advisory panels, and draft regulations.

For example:

Economic policy remains structured around Bank of England independence and City of London priorities
Defence and foreign policy are shaped through Five Eyes intelligence, NATO alignment, and legacy military partnerships
Public services are restructured via consultancy contracts with PwC, Deloitte, KPMG, and McKinsey, regardless of party in power
Planning, housing, and land law remain under influence of private landowners, aristocratic estates, and embedded lobbying firms

Case Example: The Labour Party Under Keir Starmer

Keir Starmer, elected Labour leader in 2020, positioned his leadership as a break from the previous party direction. However, under his leadership:

The party moved closer to financial sector donors, including figures linked to BlackRock and PwC
Former intelligence and security officials were appointed to key advisory roles
Support for military alignment with the US and Israel remained unchanged
Internal party governance was restructured to reduce influence from grassroots members

This reflects broader structural norms rather than individual ideology.

The Function of Rotation

In this system, politicians rotate. Officials remain. Policy frameworks remain. Institutional memory is preserved by those not elected.

This structure stabilises elite interest and limits the scope of public influence. It reflects the internalisation of empire: a system built on governance without consent, now applied domestically.

The next section will explore how this system is remembered — or forgotten — and how the culture of imperial impunity has shaped public history, legal obstruction, and present-day resistance.

Lingering Legacies and Unfinished Business

Unresolved Borders and Conflicts

British colonial withdrawal often left behind unstable borders. These were drawn by imperial officials with little regard for geography, language, or community. Many of the most violent territorial disputes in the 21st century can be traced to these lines.

India–Pakistan Partition (1947): British authorities divided British India with limited preparation. Ten to fifteen million people were displaced. An estimated one million died in violence. The Kashmir region remains in dispute.
Durand Line (1893): The British drew a boundary between British India and Afghanistan, dividing the Pashtun population. This remains the basis for tension between Afghanistan and Pakistan.
McMahon Line (1914): Drawn by British India to mark the boundary with China. This line is not recognised by China and was the basis of military clashes in 1962 and 2020.
Somaliland (2023): Conflict over the former British Somaliland border displaced nearly 200,000 people. The region’s status remains unresolved (Declassified UK, 2024: https://www.declassifieduk.org/the-empire-never-died/).

These boundaries were drawn for imperial convenience. They continue to produce instability.

Dispossession and Exile

The British Empire displaced millions. Some communities remain in exile.

Chagos Islands: Between 1968 and 1973, the UK forcibly removed around 2,000 Chagossians from the British Indian Ocean Territory to make way for a US military base. In 2019, the International Court of Justice ruled that the UK’s continued occupation was unlawful and violated Mauritius’s sovereignty (UN, 2019: https://www.un.org/press/en/2019/ga12146.doc.htm). The UK has refused to comply.
Palestine: The 1917 Balfour Declaration promised a “national home for the Jewish people” in Palestine, without consultation with the Arab majority. Under the British Mandate (1920–1948), Jewish immigration was facilitated. The result was forced displacement of Palestinians and the permanent restructuring of the region (British Library, 2025: https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/balfour-declaration).

These acts were not administrative errors. They were structural actions made with long-term consequences.

Historical Violence and Mass Death

New research continues to document the scale of harm caused by imperial policy.

In India, between 1881 and 1920, more than 100 million “excess deaths” occurred under British colonial administration. The causes include export-focused famine policies, regressive taxation, and refusal to intervene in food shortages (Hickel, 2022: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S095937802200005X).
In Kenya, during the 1950s Mau Mau rebellion, Britain detained over 70,000 people in camps. Torture and executions were documented. A compensation settlement was reached in 2013, decades after the events (Declassified UK, 2024: https://www.declassifieduk.org/the-empire-never-died/).

These figures are not symbolic. They are demographic facts.

Legal Memory and Official Secrecy

During decolonisation, British officials systematically destroyed or hid records of colonial violence. The “migrated archives” remained hidden for decades. Only in 2011 did the UK government acknowledge that thousands of colonial files had been secretly held at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office.

This secrecy shaped historical understanding. Official textbooks and public memory in Britain have long emphasised supposed “development” gains — such as railways, legal systems, or education — rather than violence or extraction.

Public discussion of empire remains limited. In 2014, a YouGov poll found that 59% of Britons believed the British Empire was “something to be proud of” (YouGov, 2014: https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/articles-reports/2014/01/15/britain-proud-its-empire).

Delayed Decolonisation

Several territories remain under British sovereignty. Some are resisting. Others are held against international legal rulings.

The UN Special Committee on Decolonisation continues to list 17 “Non-Self-Governing Territories” worldwide. The UK is the administering power for 10 of them — the largest number held by any state (UN, 2024: https://www.un.org/dppa/decolonization/en/nsgt).
The Chagos ruling in 2019 confirmed the UK’s violation of international law. The UK has not complied.
Argentina continues to challenge British control of the Falkland Islands, which were seized in 1833. The UK rejects all negotiations.
Cypriot civil society has repeatedly called for the end of British military sovereignty over the Akrotiri and Dhekelia base areas (Declassified UK, 2024: https://www.declassifieduk.org/the-empire-never-died/).

Resistance also exists inside Britain. In Scotland and Northern Ireland, support for independence has grown. These movements are shaped in part by histories of annexation and imperial policy.

Legacy in Law, Language, and Culture

The English language is now dominant globally. This is not the result of cultural exchange but of imperial spread. It provides soft power advantages to Britain and its allies.

Legal systems based on British common law exist in dozens of former colonies. These structures support global capital flows, especially in commercial arbitration and intellectual property law.

In Britain itself, post-imperial migration shaped the demographic and cultural makeup of the state. Caribbean and South Asian communities were recruited to rebuild post-war Britain. These citizens later faced legal exclusion and deportation in events like the Windrush scandal.

The public reckoning with empire is incomplete. Statues, museum holdings, and school curriculums continue to reflect imperial values. Movements to decolonise public history remain marginalised in mainstream debate.

What Remains

Colonial borders.
Colonial prisons.
Colonial debts.
Colonial laws.
Colonial elites.
Colonial silence.

I am an independent journalist. To those that support my work, you keep information free for everyone, thank you.

REFERENCES

Declassified UK

Curtis, M. (2024) ‘The empire never died’, Declassified UK, 19 May. Available at: https://www.declassifieduk.org/the-empire-never-died/ (Accessed: 7 August 2025).
Miller, P. (2020) ‘REVEALED: The UK military’s overseas base network involves 145 sites in 42 countries’, Declassified UK, 26 November. Available at: https://www.declassifieduk.org/revealed-the-uk-militarys-overseas-base-network-involves-145-sites-in-42-countries/ (Accessed: 7 August 2025).
Declassified UK (2024) ‘“Let’s just fight”: How Britain prefers war over peace in Ukraine’, Declassified UK, 9 September. Available at: https://www.declassifieduk.org/lets-just-fight-how-britain-prefers-war-over-peace-in-ukraine/ (Accessed: 7 August 2025).

UK Government and Official Documents

UK Government (2025) ‘United Kingdom Overseas Territories – Toponymic Information’, Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/68664c5ae4184a43f9785bf0/UK_Overseas_Territories_toponymic_information.pdf (Accessed: 7 August 2025).
UK Government (2023) ‘30,000 Ukrainian recruits trained in largest UK military training effort since Second World War’, GOV.UK, 10 November. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/news/30000-ukrainian-recruits-trained-in-largest-uk-military-training-effort-since-second-world-war (Accessed: 7 August 2025).

International Bodies

United Nations (2024) ‘Non-Self-Governing Territories’, United Nations Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs. Available at: https://www.un.org/dppa/decolonization/en/nsgt (Accessed: 7 August 2025).
United Nations General Assembly (2019) ‘Resolution 73/295’, United Nations. Available at: https://www.un.org/press/en/2019/ga12146.doc.htm (Accessed: 7 August 2025).

Academic Sources

Hickel, J. (2022) ‘The drain from the Global South: Unequal Exchange, 1960–2018’, Global Environmental Change, 72. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S095937802200005X (Accessed: 7 August 2025).

Media and Investigative Journalism

Sky News (2024) ‘Head of MI6 says “I’ve never seen the world in a more dangerous state”’, Sky News, 29 November. Available at: https://news.sky.com/story/head-of-mi6-says-ive-never-seen-the-world-in-a-more-dangerous-state-as-he-warns-russia-would-not-stop-if-it-wins-in-ukraine-13263010 (Accessed: 7 August 2025).
UK Defence Journal (2024) ‘UK military presence across overseas territories detailed’, UK Defence Journal, 29 November. Available at: https://ukdefencejournal.org.uk/uk-military-presence-across-overseas-territories-detailed/ (Accessed: 7 August 2025).

Privacy and Intelligence

Privacy International (2019) ‘Five Eyes’, Privacy International, 29 May. Available at: http://privacyinternational.org/learn/five-eyes (Accessed: 7 August 2025).

Tax Justice and Financial Infrastructure

Tax Justice Network (2024) ‘Corporate Tax Haven Index 2024’, Tax Justice Network, 1 October. Available at: https://cthi.taxjustice.net (Accessed: 7 August 2025).
Tax Justice Network (2021) ‘Tax havens: Britain’s second empire’, Tax Justice Network. Available at: https://taxjustice.net/2019/09/29/tax-havens-britains-second-empire/ (Accessed: 7 August 2025).

Wikipedia (used for citations with linked primary sources)

Wikipedia (2022) ‘Peace negotiations in the Russian invasion of Ukraine’. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_negotiations_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine (Accessed: 7 August 2025).
Wikipedia (2006) ‘Five Eyes’. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Eyes (Accessed: 7 August 2025).

Library and Historical Archives

British Library (2025) ‘The Balfour Declaration’. Available at: https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/balfour-declaration (Accessed: 7 August 2025).

Sources

https://cthi.taxjustice.net

“The sun never sets” — empire as eternal surveillance